Determinantes psicolingüísticos da compreensão de leitura em
inglês como língua estrangeira
Psycholinguistic determinants of reading comprehension in english as
a foreign language
Javier Vivaldo-Lima1*;
Miguel López-Olivas2**;
Rosa Obdulia González-Robles3*
*
Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana
**Universidad
Nacional Autónoma de México
RESUMO
O
objetivo deste estudo foi analisar a contribuição das variáveis
lingüísticas e psicológicas da variância associada à compreensão de
leitura em inglês (L2). A amostra esteve integrada por 280
estudantes universitarios, falantes nativos do espanhol. A dimensão
lingüística da análise avaliou a influência das habilidades de
processamento de texto do leitor em espanhol (L1), da sua
competência lingüística em L2 e da sua habilidade para perceber
transparência léxica entre as duas línguas, enquanto a dimensão
psicológica analisou a influência do estilo cognoscitivo, do locus
de controle e do controle de ação sobre a capacidade do leitor para
construir significado a partir do texto. Administrou-se aos sujeitos
uma bateria de sete instrumentos de avaliação. Uma série de análise
de regressão múltipla indicou a existência dum modelo explicativo da
leitura em L2 em duas etapas. Na primeira, as variáveis psicológicas
explicaram 10.2% da variância associada ao processamento do texto em
L1, variável que, na segunda etapa, explicou 35.8% da variância
associada à compreensão de leitura em inglês, ajuntada à competência
lingüística do leitor em L2 e à sua capacidade para perceber
transparência léxica entre L1 e L2.
Palavras chave: Compreensão de leitura em inglês, Competência
lingüística.
ABSTRACT
The
purpose of this study was to analyze the contribution of linguistic
and psychological variables in the explanation of the variance
associated with reading comprehension in English (L2). Two hundred
and eighty Mexican university students participated in the study.
The variables analyzed within the linguistic dimension were: reading
strategies in Spanish, linguistic competence in English, and ability
to perceive lexical transparency between L1 and L2. The
psychological dimension evaluated the influence of the reader’s
cognitive style, locus of control, and action control orientation on
reading comprehension in L2. Subjects were administered a battery of
seven evaluation instruments. Multiple regression analyses suggested
a two-stage explanatory model of reading in L2. Firstly,
psychological variables accounted for 10.0% of the variance in
reading comprehension in the first language. Secondly, reading
comprehension in Spanish, linguistic competence in L2, and
perception of lexical transparency, accounted for 35.5% of the
variance in reading comprehension in English.
Keywords: Reading comprehension, Foreign language,
Psycholinguistic research.
INTRODUCTION
The
ability to read proficiently in at least one foreign language has
become a major requirement of the curricula of institutions of
higher education throughout the world. This increasing demand for
proficiency in specific skills in foreign languages (reading being
the most outstanding) has led to the development of courses for
specific objectives, designed to meet concrete academic priorities.
Given
the current need to improve the reading skills of our university
students, it is considered of utmost importance to achieve a deep
comprehension of the mechanisms, processes, and variables that
promote the acquisition of relevant discourse processing skills in a
second or a foreign language, with particular emphasis on reading.
Such understanding would address a major research priority (Pugh &
Ulijn, 1984) and promote the development of research-grounded
instructional approaches in the field.
Fearch
and Kasper (1986) have stressed the need to extrapolate the research
done in the field of reading in a first language (L1) to the study
of reading processes in foreign languages (L2) with specific
reference to the development of reading comprehension models, the
formulation of research hypothesis, and the selection of relevant
instructional methodologies. They contend that although the reader’s
linguistic competence in L2 may play an important role in the
construction of meaning from text in a foreign language, it is not
necessarily the main determinant, considering the facilitation
effect associated with the reader’s knowledge of the linguistic
system of the L1 and its strategic application.
The
problem
A
constant found among students registered in reading comprehension
courses in English at the Universidad Autónoma Metroplitana in
Mexico is their wide variation in reading achievement, variation
that can not be uniquely associated with deficits in linguistic
competence in L2. That is, although most of our students enter with
a limited linguistic competence in English, some of them eventually
develop powerful reading comprehension strategies, and achieve an
efficient comprehension of textual information in L2, thus
overcoming their original linguistic limitations. However, cases of
students with rigid and inefficient text processing strategies are
invariably detected, most of them showing a lack of ability to
integrate to their reading repertoires strategies which demand a
flexible and interactive processing of information.
Hence,
and although the utmost importance of linguistic determinants for L2
reading comprehension is acknowledged, this study is based on the
assumption that the construction of meaning from text in a foreign
language may also be determined by psychological factors associated
with the reader’s perceptual, cognitive and volitional orientation.
In such regard, the main purpose of this study is to validate a
multivariate model of reading comprehension in L2 integrated by two
main explanatory dimensions of analysis: the linguistic and the
psychological.
Conceptualization of the reading process
The
theoretical approach to reading comprehension that underlies this
research is based on the Strategic Model of Discourse Processing
developed by Van Dijk and Kintsch (1983). Discourse processing is
conceptualized as a strategic and interactive process in which the
reader constructs a mental representation of discourse in memory
using both external information (the text) and internal information
(cognitive presuppositions). Discourse is analyzed from the word as
the basic unit at the lower level to whole themes as units at the
higher level, with a continuous interaction among different text
processing levels. In their words: “The model moves from the
comprehension of words to the comprehension of clauses in which
words have different functions, and from there to complex sentences,
sentence sequences and whole textual structures, with a continuous
feedback existing among less and more complex units ... instead of
operating with a conventional structural processing model we operate
with a strategic model”(p. 10).
The
model
The
model evaluated in this study (figure 1) is based on the tenet that
the variability observed in academic reading comprehension in
English in Mexican university students can be accounted for by the
interaction of two linguistic and psychological variables. The first
dimension of the model (linguistic) is threefold and analyses the
impact of (1) the reader’s strategies in his/her first language (Spanish),
(2) his/her level of linguistic competence in the foreign language (English),
and (3) his/her ability to perceive lexical transparency between
both languages (cognate perception). On the other hand, the
psychological dimension, which is also threefold, evaluates the
influence of the reader’s cognitive style, locus of control and
action control orientation on her/his construction of meaning from
text.
Following, a summarized revision of the variables incorporated in
the proposed model is presented in order to provide a theoretical
and research background to the reader.
Reading comprehension in Spanish. The first variable proposed in
the explanation of the reading performance of university students in
English is their ability to strategically process textual
information in their first language. Its integration into the model
was based on theoretical considerations about the preeminent role of
the first language in the acquisition of a foreign language. In such
regard, Beaugrande (1984) underscored the decisive influence of the
learner’s knowledge of L1 in learning a foreign language, and
proposed that the mother tongue plays the role of a metamodel of
language (of a set of expectancies regarding the way in which any
particular language is organized), which according to him, would
eventually adjust to accommodate the divergence among the L1 and the
L2.
Linguistic Competence in English. The importance of linguistic
competence in L2 for reading comprehension has been vastly
acknowledged, although perhaps underestimated in current L2 teaching
methodologies. Specifically, Beck and Carpenter (1986) propose the
existence of a “threshold level” of linguistic competence for
reading, which may fluctuate according to specific task demands but,
below which, a reader cannot construct meaning from text. Williams
and Moran (1989), on the other hand, make reference to a “linguistic
ceiling” for reading which, if extremely low, “would limit the
ability of the reader to interact with the text” (p. 221).
Perception of Lexical Transparency between L1 and L2. According
to a conceptualization of reading as a strategic process, it was
considered that the ability to perceive and exploit cognate
relationships between L1 and L2 would become a most powerful
strategy in reading, helping the reader to overcome limitations in
his/her lexical repertoire. Such contention has also been endorsed
by Beaugrande (1984) in the following terms: “If we presuppose the
existence of a general memory store for both languages (the native
and the foreign), all tactics that lead from elements in the mother
tongue to their equivalents in the foreign language help to enhance
both the efficiency and the search in memory improving familiarity
... the similarity supports learning enabling the transference of
elements, assumptions, and processes already familiar” (p.10).
Cognitive Style. Cognitive style is defined as the typical way
to solve problems, think and perceive of a given subject. Research
literature in the field makes reference to several categorizations
of the construct including field dependence-independence, conceptual
tempo, and attentional style, among others. This study centers in
the analysis of the first of these categories given its relevance to
the study of reading as a complex problem-solving skill as well as
the vast amount of experimental research relating cognitive style
and reading comprehension. According to Witkin (in Pitts & Thompson,
1984), the field independent (FI) person has a greater ability to
discover outstanding features in a complex field as well as to react
to ambiguous stimuli in an analytical way, while the field dependent
(FD) person visualizes patterns more globally. Field independence
has also been associated with a greater articulation and competence
in cognitive analysis and restructuring, while field dependence has
been related to a more global approach and to a greater
interpersonal competence. Research on the relationship between
reading comprehension and cognitive style has shown that FI readers
are more capable of making inferences than their dependent
counterparts when confronted with tasks that demand an inferential
interpretation from prose; that FD subjects tend to constrain their
reasoning to real events, whereas FI individuals consider multiple
alternatives (Linn, 1978); and that FD readers strongly rely on
information in the text, not exploiting their previous knowledge as
efficiently as FI independent subjects (Spiro & Tirre, 1980).
Locus
of Control. Locus of control is defined as a set of generalized
expectancies that reflect consistent individual differences among
subjects regarding the extent to which they perceive a contingency
between their behavior and subsequent events. According to
Strickland (1989), subjects with an internal locus of control
perceive a contingency between their own behavior and subsequent
events, whereas individuals with an external orientation have more
probability of perceiving those events as resulting from fate,
chance or circumstances beyond their personal control. Research
literature in the field includes studies analyzing the relationship
between locus of control and intentional and incidental memorization
(Beaule & Mckelvie, 1986), and locus of control and academic
achievement (Mwamwenda & Mwamwenda, 1986). Findley and Cooper (1988)
report a literature review of 98 research studies analyzing the
relationship between locus of control and academic achievement.
According with their results, internal control beliefs showed to be
consistently and significantly correlated with higher academic
achievement.
Action Control. The construct of action control, advanced by
Kuhl (1987), refers to a meta-cognitive process that mediates the
execution of an action related to an intention of an individual. The
process organizes and controls cognitive operations, such as
selective attention and the amount and quality of information
processed in a way that maximizes the congruence between intention
and performance. The extent of action control evoked in a particular
situation varies along the two ends of a continuum between action
and state orientation. State-oriented cognitions do not evoke any
tendency to action but can actively inhibit the expression of action
tendencies as a result of a partial incompatibility between action
and state orientation. That is, according to Kuhl (1987), in a
complex problem-solving situation, as the amount of state-oriented
cognitions increases, the likelihood that the individual performs an
expected action tends to decrease. It is assumed that an action that
demands complex preparatory planning cannot be carried out when the
organism is state-oriented since part of the attentional capacity
required is employed in state-oriented processes. Research studies
focused on the analysis of the relationship between action control
and reading comprehension are not reported in the literature.
Nevertheless, based on a conceptualization of the reading process in
L2 as a complex problemsolving endeavor, and on the results of
preliminary exploratory studies conducted with Mexican university
students, it was considered that the reader’s action control
orientation may also contribute to explain the variability in L2.
Research hypothesis As can be concluded from the previous
revision of literature, the individual influence on reading
comprehension of the linguistic and psychological variables
incorporated into the model has been documented on the research
literature. However, no previous attempts to integrate the two
dimensions into a single, comprehensive model of reading have been
reported. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to examine the
explanatory power of a multivariate model of reading centered around
two dimensions of analysis: the linguistic and the psychological.
The model was translated into the following research hypothesis
Reading
comprehension in English in Mexican university students, native
speakers of Spanish, is a function of their level of reading
comprehension in Spanish (reading strategies in L1); of their level
of linguistic competence in the foreign language; of their ability
to perceive lexical transparency between both the first and the
foreign language; of their cognitive style (field dependence vs.
field independence); of their locus of control (internal vs.
external); and of the type of action control orientation.
METHOD
Participants. Two hundred and eighty voluntary undergraduate
college students from two Mexican public universities participated
in the study, 118 males and 162 females. As to the institution of
reference, 105 were from the Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México
(UNAM) and 175 from the Universidad Autónoma Metropolitana (UAM).
Instruments. The evaluation of the sample was based on the
administration of a battery of tests integrated by the following
instruments: (1) Test of Discourse Processing in English as a
Foreign Language (Vivaldo, 1994); (2) Test of Discourse Processing
in Spanish as a First Language (Vivaldo, 1994); (3) Nelson English
Language Test-Level 150 (Fowler & Coe, 1976); (4) Test of Perception
of Lexical Transparency between English and Spanish (Vivaldo, 1992);
(5) The Embedded Figures Test (Witkin, Oltman, Raskin & Karp, 1971);
(6) Internality-Externality Scale (Romero-García & Pérez, 1983); and
(7) Action Control Scale (Kuhl, 1990). Following a brief description
of each instrument is presented.
Tests
of Discourse Processing Strategies in English and Spanish. Two
equivalent tests for the evaluation of reading comprehension in
English and Spanish were developed specifically for the study. The
theoretical and methodological approach to the evaluation of reading
comprehension was based on an extrapolation of the strategic model
of discourse processing developed by Van Dijk and Kintsch (1983).
The evaluation involved the analysis of the reader’s performance at
the following major levels of discourse processing: schematic, macro
propositional, local coherence and propositional.
Given
that a major methodological challenge of the study was to assure the
equivalence between the evaluation of reading strategies in English
and in Spanish, a major consideration in the design of these
instruments was to control for textual variables (text length,
lexical density, conceptual density, structure, typographical clues).
Multiple-choice
items evaluating the reader’s performance on each of the four main
levels of strategic discourse processing proposed by Van Dijk and
Kintsch (1983) were developed for each text. Items were presented in
Spanish in both tests in order to avoid additional task demands
associated to the understanding of the evaluation items in the
foreign language. Final versions of the tests were revised and
piloted using teachers of English as judges. The final version for
each instruments contained 45 items classified as follows:
Sections 1 and 2. Macropropositional Level (Items 1-17)
Included 10 multiple choice and 7 true-false items evaluating the
ability of the reader to discriminate and integrate the main macro
ideas in the text both at a global and at a local level.
Section 3. Local Coherence Level (Items 18-25). Included
8 multiple-choice items centered on the evaluation of contextual
referents within the text, as well as on the ability of the reader
to follow the argumentative network in the text.
Section 4. Propositional Level (Items 26-40). This
section was based on a “cloze” format and focused on the evaluation
of the reader’s ability to integrate syntactic, morphological,
discursive, lexical and grammatical information at a propositional
level.
Test
of Perception of Lexical Transparency between L1 and L2. The
test measured the ability of the reader to perceive cognates (words
sharing both similar form and meaning in two languages) within an
academic text. The test was based on a short expository text about
chemistry (“The Nobel Prizes”), published in Scientific
American. The text was initially piloted with a group of experts
who were asked to underline all English-Spanish cognates included in
it, with exact registration made of their response times. From the
previous procedure 134 words were categorized as cognates (those
words selected as such by all the experts). On the other hand, and
according to the mean response time between experts, a response time
of 5 min. was established for the administration of the test (the
idea being to obtain an indicator of the reader’s first impression
during a first read of the article and not of a word-by word
analytical process not natural during normal reading). The grading
for the test ranges between 0 (minimum possible value) and 134 (maximum
possible value).
Action Control Scale. The Action Control Scale (Kuhl, 1991) is a
36-item instrument divided into three subscales (action control
during performance, failure and decision taking). Each subscale is
integrated by 12 items describing particular problem situations. For
each situation the subject is given an alternative between two
possible response alternatives, either A or B (one oriented towards
action and the other towards an emotional state). The grading of the
subjects’ responses for each subscale is based o the count of the
total of action-oriented responses (between 0 and 12). In order to
provide for effects associated with item presentation, items are
distributed at random as well as options A and B. In the case of
this study, only the subject’s scores for the AOF scale were taken
into consideration.
Levenson Internality-Externality Scale. (Romero- García & Pérez,
1985). This instrument is centered on the analysis of the subjects´
locus of control within an internal-external dimension. It includes
24 Likert-type items ranging between 0 (totally disagree) and 6 (totally
agree). The total internality score for the subject (IT) is obtained
adding separately the scores for each one of the three subscales of
the instrument.
Procedure. Administration of instruments was carried out on a
group basis and involved three twohour sessions per group. A total
of 27 group sessions were held (9 groups analyzed). The
administration of reading comprehension tests was carried out on the
basis of a counterbalance procedure regarding the following criteria:
(1) order of language evaluation (L1 or L2); and (2) version of exam
administered (Text A or Text B in each language). Statistical
analyses included a series of descriptive, correlational, and
multiple regression analyses, an were conducted using the
Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS).
Determinantes
psicolingüísticos da compreensão de leitura em inglês como língua
estrangeira II
Volver al Indice de Artículos
